Immune Profiling of SARS-CoV-2; What We Know and What We Don’t Know
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), described as World War 3, is the current worldwide health challenge and nearly all countries have so far faced this disaster. There is still no cure because of the complicated pathogenesis, however, there are several studies on track investigating different aspects of the immune response to the virus. In this review, we will provide an overview of recent investigations that have analyzed immune cells in patients with COVID-19. We will then discuss the differences in immune profiles between healthy controls and various clinical presentations, including asymptomatic, mild, moderate, and severe cases.
1. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. The lancet. 2020;395(10224):565-74.
2. who. Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it 2020. Available from: www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/.
3. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579(7798):270-3.
4. Wang H, Pipes L, Nielsen R. Synonymous mutations and the molecular evolution of SARS-Cov-2 origins. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.04.20.052019.
5. Cyranoski D. Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people. Nature. 2020;10.
6. Li J, Huang DQ, Zou B, Yang H, Hui WZ, Rui F, et al. Epidemiology of COVID‐19: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of clinical characteristics, risk factors, and outcomes. J Med Virol. 2021;93(3):1449-58.
7. Pujadas E, Chaudhry F, McBride R, Richter F, Zhao S, Wajnberg A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 viral load predicts COVID-19 mortality. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(9):e70.
8. Zahn LM. HLA genetics and COVID-19. Science. 2020:841.
9. Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen Y-M, Wang W, Song Z-G, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature. 2020;579(7798):265-9.
10. Li X, Geng M, Peng Y, Meng L, Lu S. Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19. J Pharm Anal. 2020;10(2):102-8.
11. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, et al. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727-33.
12. Hou YJ, Okuda K, Edwards CE, Martinez DR, Asakura T, Dinnon III KH, et al. SARS-CoV-2 reverse genetics reveals a variable infection gradient in the respiratory tract. Cell. 2020;182(2):429-46. e14.
13. Puelles VG, Lütgehetmann M, Lindenmeyer MT, Sperhake JP, Wong MN, Allweiss L, et al. Multiorgan and renal tropism of SARS-CoV-2. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(6):590-2.
14. Huang L, Shi Y, Gong B, Jiang L, Liu X, Yang J, et al. Blood single cell immune profiling reveals the interferon-MAPK pathway mediated adaptive immune response for COVID-19. MedRxiv. 2020.
15. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. cell. 2020;181(2):271-80. e8.
16. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Pöhlmann S. A multibasic cleavage site in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 is essential for infection of human lung cells. Mol Cell. 2020;78(4):779-84. e5.
17. Wang K, Chen W, Zhou Y-S, Lian J-Q, Zhang Z, Du P, et al. SARS-CoV-2 invades host cells via a novel route: CD147-spike protein. biorxiv. 2020.
18. Sungnak W, Huang N, Bécavin C, Berg M, Queen R, Litvinukova M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nature medicine. 2020;26(5):681-7.
19. Wang S, Qiu Z, Hou Y, Deng X, Xu W, Zheng T, et al. AXL is a candidate receptor for SARS-CoV-2 that promotes infection of pulmonary and bronchial epithelial cells. Cell Res. 2021;31(2):126-40.
20. Qi F, Qian S, Zhang S, Zhang Z. Single cell RNA sequencing of 13 human tissues identify cell types and receptors of human coronaviruses. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2020;526(1):135-40.
21. Xiao K, Zhai J, Feng Y, Zhou N, Zhang X, Zou J-J, et al. Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins. Nature. 2020;583(7815):286-9.
22. Yuan Y, Cao D, Zhang Y, Ma J, Qi J, Wang Q, et al. Cryo-EM structures of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV spike glycoproteins reveal the dynamic receptor binding domains. Nat Commun. 2017;8(1):1-9.
23. Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V. Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(4):562-9.
24. Ou X, Liu Y, Lei X, Li P, Mi D, Ren L, et al. Characterization of spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 on virus entry and its immune cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1-12.
25. Yuki K, Fujiogi M, Koutsogiannaki S. COVID-19 pathophysiology: A review. Clin Immunol. 2020;215:108427.
26. Schifanella L, Anderson JL, Galli M, Corbellino M, Lai A, Wieking G, et al. Massive viral replication and cytopathic effects in early COVID-19 pneumonia. arXiv preprint arXiv:200500004. 2020.
27. Rouse BT, Sehrawat S. Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome? Nat Rev Immunol. 2010;10(7):514-26.
28. Moore JB, June CH. Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19. Science. 2020;368(6490):473.
29. Ackermann M, Verleden SE, Kuehnel M, Haverich A, Welte T, Laenger F, et al. Pulmonary vascular endothelialitis, thrombosis, and angiogenesis in Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(2):120-8.
30. Dominguez-Erquicia P, Dobarro D, Raposeiras-Roubín S, Bastos-Fernandez G, Iñiguez-Romo A. Multivessel coronary thrombosis in a patient with COVID-19 pneumonia. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(22):2132.
31. Avula A, Nalleballe K, Narula N, Sapozhnikov S, Dandu V, Toom S, et al. COVID-19 presenting as stroke. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;87:115-9.
32. Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, Yang Y, Li J, Yuan J, et al. Treatment of 5 Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 With Convalescent Plasma. Jama. 2020.
33. Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A, Angeli F. The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Eur J intern med. 2020;76:14-20.
34. Noris M, Benigni A, Remuzzi G. The case of complement activation in COVID-19 multiorgan impact. Kidney Int. 2020;98(2):314-22.
35. Yao XH, Li TY, He ZC, Ping YF, Liu HW, Yu SC, et al. [A pathological report of three COVID-19 cases by minimal invasive autopsies]. Zhonghua bing li xue za zhi = Chinese journal of pathology. 2020;49(5):411-7.
36. Garcia-Sastre A, Biron CA. Type 1 interferons and the virus-host relationship: a lesson in detente. Science. 2006;312(5775):879-82.
37. Katze MG, He Y, Gale M, Jr. Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2002;2(9):675-87.
38. Zhou Z, Ren L, Zhang L, Zhong J, Xiao Y, Jia Z, et al. Heightened innate immune responses in the respiratory tract of COVID-19 patients. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27(6):883-90. e2.
39. Mazzoni A, Salvati L, Maggi L, Capone M, Vanni A, Spinicci M, et al. Impaired immune cell cytotoxicity in severe COVID-19 is IL-6 dependent. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(9):4694-703.
40. Qin C, Ziwei MPLZM, Tao SYMY, Ke PCXMP, Shang MMPK. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China; Clinical Infectious Diseases; Oxford Academic. Clin Infect Dis. 2020.
41. Zhou Y, Fu B, Zheng X, Wang D, Zhao C, Qi Y, et al. Pathogenic T-cells and inflammatory monocytes incite inflammatory storms in severe COVID-19 patients. Natl Sci Rev. 2020;7(6):998-1002.
42. Liao M, Liu Y, Yuan J, Wen Y, Xu G, Zhao J, et al. The landscape of lung bronchoalveolar immune cells in COVID-19 revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing. MedRxiv. 2020.
43. Zheng Y, Zhuang M-W, Han L, Zhang J, Nan M-L, Zhan P, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) membrane (M) protein inhibits type I and III interferon production by targeting RIG-I/MDA-5 signaling. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020;5(1):1-13.
44. Xiong Y, Liu Y, Cao L, Wang D, Guo M, Jiang A, et al. Transcriptomic characteristics of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in COVID-19 patients. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):761-70.
45. Rodríguez Y, Novelli L, Rojas M, De Santis M, Acosta-Ampudia Y, Monsalve DM, et al. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune conditions at the crossroad of COVID-19. J Autoimmun. 2020;114:102506.
46. Song J-W, Zhang C, Fan X, Meng F-P, Xu Z, Xia P, et al. Immunological and inflammatory profiles in mild and severe cases of COVID-19. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1-10.
47. Mathew D, Giles JR, Baxter AE, Greenplate AR, Wu JE, Alanio C, et al. Deep immune profiling of COVID-19 patients reveals patient heterogeneity and distinct immunotypes with implications for therapeutic interventions. bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology. 2020:2020.05.20.106401.
48. Pacheco Y A-AY, Monsalve DM, Chang C, Gershwin ME, Anaya JM. Bystander activation and autoimmunity. J Autoimmun. 2019 Sep.
49. Matsuyama T, Kubli SP, Yoshinaga SK, Pfeffer K, Mak TW. An aberrant STAT pathway is central to COVID-19. Cell Death Differ. 2020;27(12):3209-25.
50. Konno Y, Kimura I, Uriu K, Fukushi M, Irie T, Koyanagi Y, et al. SARS-CoV-2 ORF3b Is a Potent Interferon Antagonist Whose Activity Is Increased by a Naturally Occurring Elongation Variant. Cell Reports. 2020;32(12):108185.
51. Israelow B, Song E, Mao T, Lu P, Meir A, Liu F, et al. Mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 reveals inflammatory role of type I interferon signaling. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2020;217(12).
52. Broggi A, Ghosh S, Sposito B, Spreafico R, Balzarini F, Lo Cascio A, et al. Type III interferons disrupt the lung epithelial barrier upon viral recognition. Science. 2020;369(6504):706-12.
53. Ziegler CGK, Allon SJ, Nyquist SK, Mbano IM, Miao VN, Tzouanas CN, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 Is an Interferon-Stimulated Gene in Human Airway Epithelial Cells and Is Detected in Specific Cell Subsets across Tissues. Cell. 2020;181(5):1016-35.e19.
54. Blanco-Melo D, Nilsson-Payant BE, Liu W-C, Uhl S, Hoagland D, Møller R, et al. Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19. Cell. 2020;181(5):1036-45.e9.
55. Lee JS, Shin E-C. The type I interferon response in COVID-19: implications for treatment. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(10):585-6.
56. Stanifer ML, Kee C, Cortese M, Zumaran CM, Triana S, Mukenhirn M, et al. Critical Role of Type III Interferon in Controlling SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Cell Rep. 2020;32(1):107863.
57. Zhao X, Nicholls JM, Chen YG. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus nucleocapsid protein interacts with Smad3 and modulates transforming growth factor-beta signaling. J Biol Chem. 2008;283(6):3272-80.
58. chen y, Feng Z, Diao B, Wang R, Wang G, Wang C, et al. The Novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Directly Decimates Human Spleens and Lymph Nodes. medRxiv. 2020:2020.03.27.20045427.
59. Wilk AJ, Rustagi A, Zhao NQ, Roque J, Martínez-Colón GJ, McKechnie JL, et al. A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(7):1070-6.
60. Barnes BJ, Adrover JM, Baxter-Stoltzfus A, Borczuk A, Cools-Lartigue J, Crawford JM, et al. Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: Neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med. 2020;217(6).
61. Gao T, Hu M, Zhang X, Li H, Zhu L, Liu H, et al. Highly pathogenic coronavirus N protein aggravates lung injury by MASP-2-mediated complement over-activation. medRxiv. 2020:2020.03.29.20041962.
62. Cugno M, Meroni PL, Gualtierotti R, Griffini S, Grovetti E, Torri A, et al. Complement activation in patients with COVID-19: a novel therapeutic target. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(1):215-7.
63. Takahashi K, Ip WE, Michelow IC, Ezekowitz RA. The mannose-binding lectin: a prototypic pattern recognition molecule. Curr Opin Immunol. 2006;18(1):16-23.
64. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497-506.
65. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Liu H, Wu Y, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(5):475-81.
66. Xu X, Chang XN, Pan HX, Su H, Huang B, Yang M, et al. [Pathological changes of the spleen in ten patients with coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19) by postmortem needle autopsy]. Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi. 2020;49(6):576-82.
67. Bermejo-Martin JF, Almansa R, Menéndez R, Mendez R, Kelvin DJ, Torres A. Lymphopenic community acquired pneumonia as signature of severe COVID-19 infection. J Infect. 2020;80(5):e23-e4.
68. Baruah V, Bose S. Immunoinformatics-aided identification of T cell and B cell epitopes in the surface glycoprotein of 2019-nCoV. J Med Virol. 2020;92(5):495-500.
69. Halstead SB. Dengue Antibody-Dependent Enhancement: Knowns and Unknowns. Microbiol Spectr. 2014;2(6).
70. Iwasaki A, Yang Y. The potential danger of suboptimal antibody responses in COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(6):339-41.
71. Tan W, Lu Y, Zhang J, Wang J, Dan Y, Tan Z, et al. Viral kinetics and antibody responses in patients with COVID-19. MedRxiv. 2020.
72. Okba NM, Müller MA, Li W, Wang C, GeurtsvanKessel CH, Corman VM, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2− specific antibody responses in coronavirus disease patients. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(7):1478.
73. Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, Liu W, Liao X, Su Y, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2027-34.
74. Thevarajan I, Nguyen THO, Koutsakos M, Druce J, Caly L, van de Sandt CE, et al. Breadth of concomitant immune responses prior to patient recovery: a case report of non-severe COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(4):453-5.
75. Suthar MS, Zimmerman M, Kauffman R, Mantus G, Linderman S, Vanderheiden A, et al. Rapid generation of neutralizing antibody responses in COVID-19 patients. medRxiv : the preprint server for health sciences. 2020:2020.05.03.20084442.
76. Hou H, Wang T, Zhang B, Luo Y, Mao L, Wang F, et al. Detection of IgM and IgG antibodies in patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Transl Immunology. 2020;9(5):e1136.
77. Guo L, Ren L, Yang S, Xiao M, Chang D, Yang F, et al. Profiling early humoral response to diagnose novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Clin Infect Dis
2020;71(15):778-85.
78. Vabret N, Britton GJ, Gruber C, Hegde S, Kim J, Kuksin M, et al. Immunology of COVID-19: current state of the science. Immunity. 2020;52(6):910-41.
79. García LF. Immune Response, Inflammation, and the Clinical Spectrum of COVID-19. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1441.
80. Long Q-X, Liu B-Z, Deng H-J, Wu G-C, Deng K, Chen Y-K, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(6):845-8.
81. Chandrashekar A, Liu J, Martinot AJ, McMahan K, Mercado NB, Peter L, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection protects against rechallenge in rhesus macaques. Science. 2020:eabc4776.
82. Bao L, Deng W, Gao H, Xiao C, Liu J, Xue J, et al. Lack of Reinfection in Rhesus Macaques Infected with SARS-CoV-2. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.03.13.990226.
83. Deng W, Bao L, Liu J, Xiao C, Liu J, Xue J, et al. Primary exposure to SARS-CoV-2 protects against reinfection in rhesus macaques. Science. 2020.
84. Duan K, Liu B, Li C, Zhang H, Yu T, Qu J, et al. Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2020.
85. Brouwer P, Caniels T, van Straten K, Snitselaar J, Aldon Y, Bangaru S, et al. Potent neutralizing antibodies from COVID-19 patients define multiple targets of vulnerability. bioRxiv. 2020.
86. Cao WC, Liu W, Zhang PH, Zhang F, Richardus JH. Disappearance of antibodies to SARS-associated coronavirus after recovery. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(11):1162-3.
87. Long Q-X, Tang X-J, Shi Q-L, Li Q, Deng H-J, Yuan J, et al. Clinical and immunological assessment of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections. Nat Med. 2020;26(8):1200-4.
88. Ibarrondo FJ, Fulcher JA, Goodman-Meza D, Elliott J, Hofmann C, Hausner MA, et al. Rapid Decay of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Persons with Mild Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(11):1085-7.
89. Hartley GE, Edwards ESJ, Aui PM, Varese N, Stojanovic S, McMahon J, et al. Rapid generation of durable B cell memory to SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins in COVID-19 and convalescence. Sci Immunol. 2020;5(54).
90. Fast E, Altman RB, Chen B. Potential T-cell and B-cell epitopes of 2019-nCoV. BioRxiv. 2020.
91. Tai W, He L, Zhang X, Pu J, Voronin D, Jiang S, et al. Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine. Cell Mol Immunol. 2020;17(6):613-20.
92. Maghsood F, Shokri M-R, Jeddi-Tehrani M, Torabi Rahvar M, Ghaderi A, Salimi V, et al. Identification of immunodominant epitopes on nucleocapsid and spike proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 in Iranian COVID-19 patients. Pathog Dis. 2022;80(1).
93. Kong W-H, Zhao R, Zhou J-B, Wang F, Kong D-G, Sun J-B, et al. Serologic response to SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 patients with different severity. Virol Sin. 2020;35(6):752-7.
94. Duan YQ, Xia MH, Ren L, Zhang YF, Ao QL, Xu SP, et al. Deficiency of Tfh Cells and Germinal Center in Deceased COVID-19 Patients. Curr Med Sci. 2020;40(4):618-24.
95. Richter FC, Borsa M. Getting to the (germinal) centre of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(10):590.
96. Kaneko N, Kuo H-H, Boucau J, Farmer JR, Allard-Chamard H, Mahajan VS, et al. Loss of Bcl-6-Expressing T Follicular Helper Cells and Germinal Centers in COVID-19. Cell. 2020;183(1):143-57.e13.
97. Grifoni A, Weiskopf D, Ramirez SI, Mateus J, Dan JM, Moderbacher CR, et al. Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals. Cell. 2020;181(7):1489-501.e15.
98. Braun J, Loyal L, Frentsch M, Wendisch D, Georg P, Kurth F, et al. Presence of SARS-CoV-2 reactive T cells in COVID-19 patients and healthy donors. medRxiv. 2020:2020.04.17.20061440.
99. Weiskopf D, Schmitz KS, Raadsen MP, Grifoni A, Okba NMA, Endeman H, et al. Phenotype and kinetics of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Sci Immunol. 2020;5(48).
100. Neidleman J, Luo X, Frouard J, Xie G, Gill G, Stein ES, et al. SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells exhibit phenotypic features reflecting robust helper function, lack of terminal differentiation, and high proliferative potential. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.06.08.138826.
101. Sekine T, Perez-Potti A, Rivera-Ballesteros O, Strålin K, Gorin J-B, Olsson A, et al. Robust T cell immunity in convalescent individuals with asymptomatic or mild COVID-19. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.06.29.174888.
102. Tang F, Quan Y, Xin Z-T, Wrammert J, Ma M-J, Lv H, et al. Lack of peripheral memory B cell responses in recovered patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome: a six-year follow-up study. J Immunol. 2011;186(12):7264-8.
103. Zuo J, Dowell A, Pearce H, Verma K, Long HM, Begum J, et al. Robust SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell immunity is maintained at 6 months following primary infection. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.11.01.362319.
104. Meckiff BJ, Ramírez-Suástegui C, Fajardo V, Chee SJ, Kusnadi A, Simon H, et al. Imbalance of Regulatory and Cytotoxic SARS-CoV-2-Reactive CD4(+) T Cells in COVID-19. Cell. 2020;183(5):1340-53.e16.
105. Liao M, Liu Y, Yuan J, Wen Y, Xu G, Zhao J, et al. Single-cell landscape of bronchoalveolar immune cells in patients with COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(6):842-4.
106. Maghsood F, Hassani D, Salimi V, Kardar GA, Khoshnoodi J, Ghaderi A, et al. Differential Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2 Antigens in Recovered and Deceased Iranian COVID-19 Patients. Viral Immunol. 2021;34(10):708-13.
107. Hadjadj J, Yatim N, Barnabei L, Corneau A, Boussier J, Pere H, et al. Impaired type I interferon activity and exacerbated inflammatory responses in severe Covid-19 patients. medRxiv. 2020:2020.04.19.20068015.
108. Zhao Y, Qin L, Zhang P, Li K, Liang L, Sun J, et al. Longitudinal COVID-19 profiling associates IL-1RA and IL-10 with disease severity and RANTES with mild disease. JCI Insight. 2020;5(13).
109. Seguin A, Galicier L, Boutboul D, Lemiale V, Azoulay E. Pulmonary Involvement in Patients With Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis. Chest. 2016;149(5):1294-301.
110. Tian S, Hu W, Niu L, Liu H, Xu H, Xiao S-Y. Pulmonary Pathology of Early-Phase 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pneumonia in Two Patients With Lung Cancer. Journal of Thoracic Oncology. 2020;15(5):700-4.
2. who. Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it 2020. Available from: www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/.
3. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579(7798):270-3.
4. Wang H, Pipes L, Nielsen R. Synonymous mutations and the molecular evolution of SARS-Cov-2 origins. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.04.20.052019.
5. Cyranoski D. Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people. Nature. 2020;10.
6. Li J, Huang DQ, Zou B, Yang H, Hui WZ, Rui F, et al. Epidemiology of COVID‐19: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of clinical characteristics, risk factors, and outcomes. J Med Virol. 2021;93(3):1449-58.
7. Pujadas E, Chaudhry F, McBride R, Richter F, Zhao S, Wajnberg A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 viral load predicts COVID-19 mortality. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(9):e70.
8. Zahn LM. HLA genetics and COVID-19. Science. 2020:841.
9. Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen Y-M, Wang W, Song Z-G, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature. 2020;579(7798):265-9.
10. Li X, Geng M, Peng Y, Meng L, Lu S. Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19. J Pharm Anal. 2020;10(2):102-8.
11. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, et al. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727-33.
12. Hou YJ, Okuda K, Edwards CE, Martinez DR, Asakura T, Dinnon III KH, et al. SARS-CoV-2 reverse genetics reveals a variable infection gradient in the respiratory tract. Cell. 2020;182(2):429-46. e14.
13. Puelles VG, Lütgehetmann M, Lindenmeyer MT, Sperhake JP, Wong MN, Allweiss L, et al. Multiorgan and renal tropism of SARS-CoV-2. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(6):590-2.
14. Huang L, Shi Y, Gong B, Jiang L, Liu X, Yang J, et al. Blood single cell immune profiling reveals the interferon-MAPK pathway mediated adaptive immune response for COVID-19. MedRxiv. 2020.
15. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. cell. 2020;181(2):271-80. e8.
16. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Pöhlmann S. A multibasic cleavage site in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 is essential for infection of human lung cells. Mol Cell. 2020;78(4):779-84. e5.
17. Wang K, Chen W, Zhou Y-S, Lian J-Q, Zhang Z, Du P, et al. SARS-CoV-2 invades host cells via a novel route: CD147-spike protein. biorxiv. 2020.
18. Sungnak W, Huang N, Bécavin C, Berg M, Queen R, Litvinukova M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nature medicine. 2020;26(5):681-7.
19. Wang S, Qiu Z, Hou Y, Deng X, Xu W, Zheng T, et al. AXL is a candidate receptor for SARS-CoV-2 that promotes infection of pulmonary and bronchial epithelial cells. Cell Res. 2021;31(2):126-40.
20. Qi F, Qian S, Zhang S, Zhang Z. Single cell RNA sequencing of 13 human tissues identify cell types and receptors of human coronaviruses. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2020;526(1):135-40.
21. Xiao K, Zhai J, Feng Y, Zhou N, Zhang X, Zou J-J, et al. Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins. Nature. 2020;583(7815):286-9.
22. Yuan Y, Cao D, Zhang Y, Ma J, Qi J, Wang Q, et al. Cryo-EM structures of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV spike glycoproteins reveal the dynamic receptor binding domains. Nat Commun. 2017;8(1):1-9.
23. Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V. Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(4):562-9.
24. Ou X, Liu Y, Lei X, Li P, Mi D, Ren L, et al. Characterization of spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 on virus entry and its immune cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1-12.
25. Yuki K, Fujiogi M, Koutsogiannaki S. COVID-19 pathophysiology: A review. Clin Immunol. 2020;215:108427.
26. Schifanella L, Anderson JL, Galli M, Corbellino M, Lai A, Wieking G, et al. Massive viral replication and cytopathic effects in early COVID-19 pneumonia. arXiv preprint arXiv:200500004. 2020.
27. Rouse BT, Sehrawat S. Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome? Nat Rev Immunol. 2010;10(7):514-26.
28. Moore JB, June CH. Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19. Science. 2020;368(6490):473.
29. Ackermann M, Verleden SE, Kuehnel M, Haverich A, Welte T, Laenger F, et al. Pulmonary vascular endothelialitis, thrombosis, and angiogenesis in Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(2):120-8.
30. Dominguez-Erquicia P, Dobarro D, Raposeiras-Roubín S, Bastos-Fernandez G, Iñiguez-Romo A. Multivessel coronary thrombosis in a patient with COVID-19 pneumonia. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(22):2132.
31. Avula A, Nalleballe K, Narula N, Sapozhnikov S, Dandu V, Toom S, et al. COVID-19 presenting as stroke. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;87:115-9.
32. Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, Yang Y, Li J, Yuan J, et al. Treatment of 5 Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 With Convalescent Plasma. Jama. 2020.
33. Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A, Angeli F. The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Eur J intern med. 2020;76:14-20.
34. Noris M, Benigni A, Remuzzi G. The case of complement activation in COVID-19 multiorgan impact. Kidney Int. 2020;98(2):314-22.
35. Yao XH, Li TY, He ZC, Ping YF, Liu HW, Yu SC, et al. [A pathological report of three COVID-19 cases by minimal invasive autopsies]. Zhonghua bing li xue za zhi = Chinese journal of pathology. 2020;49(5):411-7.
36. Garcia-Sastre A, Biron CA. Type 1 interferons and the virus-host relationship: a lesson in detente. Science. 2006;312(5775):879-82.
37. Katze MG, He Y, Gale M, Jr. Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2002;2(9):675-87.
38. Zhou Z, Ren L, Zhang L, Zhong J, Xiao Y, Jia Z, et al. Heightened innate immune responses in the respiratory tract of COVID-19 patients. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27(6):883-90. e2.
39. Mazzoni A, Salvati L, Maggi L, Capone M, Vanni A, Spinicci M, et al. Impaired immune cell cytotoxicity in severe COVID-19 is IL-6 dependent. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(9):4694-703.
40. Qin C, Ziwei MPLZM, Tao SYMY, Ke PCXMP, Shang MMPK. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China; Clinical Infectious Diseases; Oxford Academic. Clin Infect Dis. 2020.
41. Zhou Y, Fu B, Zheng X, Wang D, Zhao C, Qi Y, et al. Pathogenic T-cells and inflammatory monocytes incite inflammatory storms in severe COVID-19 patients. Natl Sci Rev. 2020;7(6):998-1002.
42. Liao M, Liu Y, Yuan J, Wen Y, Xu G, Zhao J, et al. The landscape of lung bronchoalveolar immune cells in COVID-19 revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing. MedRxiv. 2020.
43. Zheng Y, Zhuang M-W, Han L, Zhang J, Nan M-L, Zhan P, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) membrane (M) protein inhibits type I and III interferon production by targeting RIG-I/MDA-5 signaling. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020;5(1):1-13.
44. Xiong Y, Liu Y, Cao L, Wang D, Guo M, Jiang A, et al. Transcriptomic characteristics of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in COVID-19 patients. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):761-70.
45. Rodríguez Y, Novelli L, Rojas M, De Santis M, Acosta-Ampudia Y, Monsalve DM, et al. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune conditions at the crossroad of COVID-19. J Autoimmun. 2020;114:102506.
46. Song J-W, Zhang C, Fan X, Meng F-P, Xu Z, Xia P, et al. Immunological and inflammatory profiles in mild and severe cases of COVID-19. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1-10.
47. Mathew D, Giles JR, Baxter AE, Greenplate AR, Wu JE, Alanio C, et al. Deep immune profiling of COVID-19 patients reveals patient heterogeneity and distinct immunotypes with implications for therapeutic interventions. bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology. 2020:2020.05.20.106401.
48. Pacheco Y A-AY, Monsalve DM, Chang C, Gershwin ME, Anaya JM. Bystander activation and autoimmunity. J Autoimmun. 2019 Sep.
49. Matsuyama T, Kubli SP, Yoshinaga SK, Pfeffer K, Mak TW. An aberrant STAT pathway is central to COVID-19. Cell Death Differ. 2020;27(12):3209-25.
50. Konno Y, Kimura I, Uriu K, Fukushi M, Irie T, Koyanagi Y, et al. SARS-CoV-2 ORF3b Is a Potent Interferon Antagonist Whose Activity Is Increased by a Naturally Occurring Elongation Variant. Cell Reports. 2020;32(12):108185.
51. Israelow B, Song E, Mao T, Lu P, Meir A, Liu F, et al. Mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 reveals inflammatory role of type I interferon signaling. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2020;217(12).
52. Broggi A, Ghosh S, Sposito B, Spreafico R, Balzarini F, Lo Cascio A, et al. Type III interferons disrupt the lung epithelial barrier upon viral recognition. Science. 2020;369(6504):706-12.
53. Ziegler CGK, Allon SJ, Nyquist SK, Mbano IM, Miao VN, Tzouanas CN, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 Is an Interferon-Stimulated Gene in Human Airway Epithelial Cells and Is Detected in Specific Cell Subsets across Tissues. Cell. 2020;181(5):1016-35.e19.
54. Blanco-Melo D, Nilsson-Payant BE, Liu W-C, Uhl S, Hoagland D, Møller R, et al. Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19. Cell. 2020;181(5):1036-45.e9.
55. Lee JS, Shin E-C. The type I interferon response in COVID-19: implications for treatment. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(10):585-6.
56. Stanifer ML, Kee C, Cortese M, Zumaran CM, Triana S, Mukenhirn M, et al. Critical Role of Type III Interferon in Controlling SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Cell Rep. 2020;32(1):107863.
57. Zhao X, Nicholls JM, Chen YG. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus nucleocapsid protein interacts with Smad3 and modulates transforming growth factor-beta signaling. J Biol Chem. 2008;283(6):3272-80.
58. chen y, Feng Z, Diao B, Wang R, Wang G, Wang C, et al. The Novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Directly Decimates Human Spleens and Lymph Nodes. medRxiv. 2020:2020.03.27.20045427.
59. Wilk AJ, Rustagi A, Zhao NQ, Roque J, Martínez-Colón GJ, McKechnie JL, et al. A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(7):1070-6.
60. Barnes BJ, Adrover JM, Baxter-Stoltzfus A, Borczuk A, Cools-Lartigue J, Crawford JM, et al. Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: Neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med. 2020;217(6).
61. Gao T, Hu M, Zhang X, Li H, Zhu L, Liu H, et al. Highly pathogenic coronavirus N protein aggravates lung injury by MASP-2-mediated complement over-activation. medRxiv. 2020:2020.03.29.20041962.
62. Cugno M, Meroni PL, Gualtierotti R, Griffini S, Grovetti E, Torri A, et al. Complement activation in patients with COVID-19: a novel therapeutic target. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(1):215-7.
63. Takahashi K, Ip WE, Michelow IC, Ezekowitz RA. The mannose-binding lectin: a prototypic pattern recognition molecule. Curr Opin Immunol. 2006;18(1):16-23.
64. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497-506.
65. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Liu H, Wu Y, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(5):475-81.
66. Xu X, Chang XN, Pan HX, Su H, Huang B, Yang M, et al. [Pathological changes of the spleen in ten patients with coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19) by postmortem needle autopsy]. Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi. 2020;49(6):576-82.
67. Bermejo-Martin JF, Almansa R, Menéndez R, Mendez R, Kelvin DJ, Torres A. Lymphopenic community acquired pneumonia as signature of severe COVID-19 infection. J Infect. 2020;80(5):e23-e4.
68. Baruah V, Bose S. Immunoinformatics-aided identification of T cell and B cell epitopes in the surface glycoprotein of 2019-nCoV. J Med Virol. 2020;92(5):495-500.
69. Halstead SB. Dengue Antibody-Dependent Enhancement: Knowns and Unknowns. Microbiol Spectr. 2014;2(6).
70. Iwasaki A, Yang Y. The potential danger of suboptimal antibody responses in COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(6):339-41.
71. Tan W, Lu Y, Zhang J, Wang J, Dan Y, Tan Z, et al. Viral kinetics and antibody responses in patients with COVID-19. MedRxiv. 2020.
72. Okba NM, Müller MA, Li W, Wang C, GeurtsvanKessel CH, Corman VM, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2− specific antibody responses in coronavirus disease patients. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(7):1478.
73. Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, Liu W, Liao X, Su Y, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2027-34.
74. Thevarajan I, Nguyen THO, Koutsakos M, Druce J, Caly L, van de Sandt CE, et al. Breadth of concomitant immune responses prior to patient recovery: a case report of non-severe COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(4):453-5.
75. Suthar MS, Zimmerman M, Kauffman R, Mantus G, Linderman S, Vanderheiden A, et al. Rapid generation of neutralizing antibody responses in COVID-19 patients. medRxiv : the preprint server for health sciences. 2020:2020.05.03.20084442.
76. Hou H, Wang T, Zhang B, Luo Y, Mao L, Wang F, et al. Detection of IgM and IgG antibodies in patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Transl Immunology. 2020;9(5):e1136.
77. Guo L, Ren L, Yang S, Xiao M, Chang D, Yang F, et al. Profiling early humoral response to diagnose novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Clin Infect Dis
2020;71(15):778-85.
78. Vabret N, Britton GJ, Gruber C, Hegde S, Kim J, Kuksin M, et al. Immunology of COVID-19: current state of the science. Immunity. 2020;52(6):910-41.
79. García LF. Immune Response, Inflammation, and the Clinical Spectrum of COVID-19. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1441.
80. Long Q-X, Liu B-Z, Deng H-J, Wu G-C, Deng K, Chen Y-K, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(6):845-8.
81. Chandrashekar A, Liu J, Martinot AJ, McMahan K, Mercado NB, Peter L, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection protects against rechallenge in rhesus macaques. Science. 2020:eabc4776.
82. Bao L, Deng W, Gao H, Xiao C, Liu J, Xue J, et al. Lack of Reinfection in Rhesus Macaques Infected with SARS-CoV-2. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.03.13.990226.
83. Deng W, Bao L, Liu J, Xiao C, Liu J, Xue J, et al. Primary exposure to SARS-CoV-2 protects against reinfection in rhesus macaques. Science. 2020.
84. Duan K, Liu B, Li C, Zhang H, Yu T, Qu J, et al. Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2020.
85. Brouwer P, Caniels T, van Straten K, Snitselaar J, Aldon Y, Bangaru S, et al. Potent neutralizing antibodies from COVID-19 patients define multiple targets of vulnerability. bioRxiv. 2020.
86. Cao WC, Liu W, Zhang PH, Zhang F, Richardus JH. Disappearance of antibodies to SARS-associated coronavirus after recovery. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(11):1162-3.
87. Long Q-X, Tang X-J, Shi Q-L, Li Q, Deng H-J, Yuan J, et al. Clinical and immunological assessment of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections. Nat Med. 2020;26(8):1200-4.
88. Ibarrondo FJ, Fulcher JA, Goodman-Meza D, Elliott J, Hofmann C, Hausner MA, et al. Rapid Decay of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Persons with Mild Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(11):1085-7.
89. Hartley GE, Edwards ESJ, Aui PM, Varese N, Stojanovic S, McMahon J, et al. Rapid generation of durable B cell memory to SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins in COVID-19 and convalescence. Sci Immunol. 2020;5(54).
90. Fast E, Altman RB, Chen B. Potential T-cell and B-cell epitopes of 2019-nCoV. BioRxiv. 2020.
91. Tai W, He L, Zhang X, Pu J, Voronin D, Jiang S, et al. Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine. Cell Mol Immunol. 2020;17(6):613-20.
92. Maghsood F, Shokri M-R, Jeddi-Tehrani M, Torabi Rahvar M, Ghaderi A, Salimi V, et al. Identification of immunodominant epitopes on nucleocapsid and spike proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 in Iranian COVID-19 patients. Pathog Dis. 2022;80(1).
93. Kong W-H, Zhao R, Zhou J-B, Wang F, Kong D-G, Sun J-B, et al. Serologic response to SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 patients with different severity. Virol Sin. 2020;35(6):752-7.
94. Duan YQ, Xia MH, Ren L, Zhang YF, Ao QL, Xu SP, et al. Deficiency of Tfh Cells and Germinal Center in Deceased COVID-19 Patients. Curr Med Sci. 2020;40(4):618-24.
95. Richter FC, Borsa M. Getting to the (germinal) centre of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(10):590.
96. Kaneko N, Kuo H-H, Boucau J, Farmer JR, Allard-Chamard H, Mahajan VS, et al. Loss of Bcl-6-Expressing T Follicular Helper Cells and Germinal Centers in COVID-19. Cell. 2020;183(1):143-57.e13.
97. Grifoni A, Weiskopf D, Ramirez SI, Mateus J, Dan JM, Moderbacher CR, et al. Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals. Cell. 2020;181(7):1489-501.e15.
98. Braun J, Loyal L, Frentsch M, Wendisch D, Georg P, Kurth F, et al. Presence of SARS-CoV-2 reactive T cells in COVID-19 patients and healthy donors. medRxiv. 2020:2020.04.17.20061440.
99. Weiskopf D, Schmitz KS, Raadsen MP, Grifoni A, Okba NMA, Endeman H, et al. Phenotype and kinetics of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Sci Immunol. 2020;5(48).
100. Neidleman J, Luo X, Frouard J, Xie G, Gill G, Stein ES, et al. SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells exhibit phenotypic features reflecting robust helper function, lack of terminal differentiation, and high proliferative potential. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.06.08.138826.
101. Sekine T, Perez-Potti A, Rivera-Ballesteros O, Strålin K, Gorin J-B, Olsson A, et al. Robust T cell immunity in convalescent individuals with asymptomatic or mild COVID-19. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.06.29.174888.
102. Tang F, Quan Y, Xin Z-T, Wrammert J, Ma M-J, Lv H, et al. Lack of peripheral memory B cell responses in recovered patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome: a six-year follow-up study. J Immunol. 2011;186(12):7264-8.
103. Zuo J, Dowell A, Pearce H, Verma K, Long HM, Begum J, et al. Robust SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell immunity is maintained at 6 months following primary infection. bioRxiv. 2020:2020.11.01.362319.
104. Meckiff BJ, Ramírez-Suástegui C, Fajardo V, Chee SJ, Kusnadi A, Simon H, et al. Imbalance of Regulatory and Cytotoxic SARS-CoV-2-Reactive CD4(+) T Cells in COVID-19. Cell. 2020;183(5):1340-53.e16.
105. Liao M, Liu Y, Yuan J, Wen Y, Xu G, Zhao J, et al. Single-cell landscape of bronchoalveolar immune cells in patients with COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(6):842-4.
106. Maghsood F, Hassani D, Salimi V, Kardar GA, Khoshnoodi J, Ghaderi A, et al. Differential Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2 Antigens in Recovered and Deceased Iranian COVID-19 Patients. Viral Immunol. 2021;34(10):708-13.
107. Hadjadj J, Yatim N, Barnabei L, Corneau A, Boussier J, Pere H, et al. Impaired type I interferon activity and exacerbated inflammatory responses in severe Covid-19 patients. medRxiv. 2020:2020.04.19.20068015.
108. Zhao Y, Qin L, Zhang P, Li K, Liang L, Sun J, et al. Longitudinal COVID-19 profiling associates IL-1RA and IL-10 with disease severity and RANTES with mild disease. JCI Insight. 2020;5(13).
109. Seguin A, Galicier L, Boutboul D, Lemiale V, Azoulay E. Pulmonary Involvement in Patients With Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis. Chest. 2016;149(5):1294-301.
110. Tian S, Hu W, Niu L, Liu H, Xu H, Xiao S-Y. Pulmonary Pathology of Early-Phase 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pneumonia in Two Patients With Lung Cancer. Journal of Thoracic Oncology. 2020;15(5):700-4.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 22 No 3 (2023) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijaai.v22i3.13050 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Adaptive immunity Coronavirus disease 2019 Immunology Innate immunity Physiopathology Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Zohouri M, Ghods A, Roshan Zamir M, Shokri F, Ghaderi A. Immune Profiling of SARS-CoV-2; What We Know and What We Don’t Know. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2023;22(3):217-232.
