Variable Clinical Manifestations of COVID-19: Viral and Human Genomes Talk
Abstract
The new coronavirus, known as “SARS-CoV-2”; is the cause of one of the most prevalent infectious viral diseases that was recently announced pandemic by the world health organization. Ongoing research in the fields of prevention, management, and therapy establishes a functional scaffold for clinics during the time of crisis. To obtain this goal, it is necessary that all pathophysiologic aspects of COVID-19 from infection to predisposing backgrounds of infection be identified, so that all the ambiguities of researchers regarding transmission mechanisms, variable clinical manifestation, and therapeutic response can be solved. Here, we firstly discuss about the homology screening between nCoV-2019 and beta-coronavirus family using phylogenetic analyses. Secondly, we analyzed the viral motifs to show that viral entry into the host cells requires a primary activation step performed by FURIN and FURIN-like-mediated enzymatic cleavage on the structural glycoprotein. The cleavage increases viral performance by 1000 folds. We then present a comprehensive view on host cells and the significance of gene variants affecting activation enzymes, supportive entry, and spread mechanisms in humans including renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) a pathway results in certain phenotypes or exacerbate infection-related phenotypes in different organs, hence causes variable clinical manifestations. This is followed by discussing about the importance of personalized medicine in nCoV-2019 exposure. Moreover, chemical drugs prescribed for individuals affected with COVID-19, as well as genes involved in drug transport and metabolisms are reviewed as a prelude to drug response. Finally, we suggest some therapeutic approaches developed based on new methods and technology such as anti-sense therapy and antibodies.
1. Hilgenfeld R, Peiris M. From SARS to MERS: 10 years of research on highly pathogenic human coronaviruses. Antiviral Res. 2013;100(1):286-295.
2. Pouya F, Imani Saber Z, Kerachian MA. Molecular Aspects of Co-morbidities in COVID-19 Infection. Arch Bone Jt Surg. 2020;8(Suppl1):226-230.
3. Banerjee A, Baker ML, Kulcsar K, Misra V, Plowright R, Mossman K. Novel insights into immune systems of bats. Front Immunol. 2020;11:26.
4. Lau SK, Li KS, Tsang AK, Lam CS, Ahmed S, Chen H, et al. Genetic characterization of Betacoronavirus lineage C viruses in bats reveals marked sequence divergence in the spike protein of pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5 in Japanese pipistrelle: implications for the origin of the novel Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol. 2013;87(15):8638-50.
5. Yang Y, Lu Q, Liu M, Wang Y, Zhang A, Jalali N, et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in China. medrxiv. 2020.
6. Coutard B, Valle C, de Lamballerie X, Canard B, Seidah N, Decroly E. The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade. Antiviral Res. 2020;176:104742.
7. Yuan Y, Cao D, Zhang Y, Ma J, Qi J, Wang Q, et al. Cryo-EM structures of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV spike glycoproteins reveal the dynamic receptor binding domains. Nat Commun. 2017;8:15092.
8. Yamada Y, Liu DX. Proteolytic activation of the spike protein at a novel RRRR/S motif is implicated in furin-dependent entry, syncytium formation, and infectivity of coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus in cultured cells. J Virol. 2009;83(17):8744-58.
9. Tse, Victor and Hamilton, Alice and Friling, Tamar and Whittaker, Gary. A Novel Activation Mechanism of Avian Influenza Virus H9N2 by Furin. J Virol. 2013;1673-83
10. Cameron A, Appel J, Houghten RA, Lindberg I. Polyarginines are potent furin inhibitors. J Biol Chem. 2000;275(47):36741-9.
11. Moulard M, Decroly E. Maturation of HIV envelope glycoprotein precursors by cellular endoproteases. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2000;1469(3):121-32.
12. Taylor NA, Van De Ven WJ, Creemers JW. Curbing activation: proprotein convertases in homeostasis and pathology. Faseb j. 2003;17(10):1215-27.
13. Wu MJ, Wolska A, Roberts BS, Pearson EM, Gutgsell AR, Remaley AT, et al. Coexpression of novel furin-resistant LPL variants with lipase maturation factor 1 enhances LPL secretion and activity. J Lipid Res. 2018;59(12):2456-65.
14. Tikka A, Jauhiainen M. The role of ANGPTL3 in controlling lipoprotein metabolism. Endocrine. 2016;52(2):187-93.
15. Bassi DE, Mahloogi H, Lopez De Cicco R, Klein-Szanto A. Increased furin activity enhances the malignant phenotype of human head and neck cancer cells. Am J Pathol. 2003;162(2):439-47.
16. Sudevan S, Takiura M, Kubota Y, Higashitani N, Cooke M, Ellwood RA, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction causes Ca(2+) overload and ECM degradation-mediated muscle damage in C. elegans. Faseb j. 2019;33(8):9540-50.
17. Yakala GK, Cabrera-Fuentes H, Crespo-Avilan G, Rattanasopa C, Burlacu A, George B, et al. FURIN Inhibition Reduces Vascular Remodeling and Atherosclerotic Lesion Progression in Mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2019;39.
18. Fowler DM, Koulov AV, Alory-Jost C, Marks MS, Balch WE, Kelly JW. Functional amyloid formation within mammalian tissue. PLoS Biol. 2006;4(1):e6.
19. Gondzik V, Weber WM, Awayda MS. Coupling of epithelial Na+ and Cl- channels by direct and indirect activation by serine proteases. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2012;303(9):C936-46.
20. Boucher E, Mayer G, Londono I, Bendayan M. Expression and localization of MT1-MMP and furin in the glomerular wall of short- and long-term diabetic rats. Kidney Int. 2006;69(9):1570-7.
21. Ornatowski W, Poschet JF, Perkett E, Taylor-Cousar JL, Deretic V. Elevated furin levels in human cystic fibrosis cells result in hypersusceptibility to exotoxin A-induced cytotoxicity. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(11):3489-97.
22. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020.
23. Zheng X, Chung D, Takayama TK, Majerus EM, Sadler JE, Fujikawa K. Structure of von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease (ADAMTS13), a metalloprotease involved in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. J Biol Chem. 2001;276(44):41059-63.
24. Yang X, Yang W, McVey DG, Zhao G, Hu J, Poston RN, et al. FURIN Expression in Vascular Endothelial Cells Is Modulated by a Coronary Artery Disease–Associated Genetic Variant and Influences Monocyte Transendothelial Migration. J AM HEART ASSOC. 2020;9(4):e014333.
25. Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, Zhong N, Slutsky AS. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med. 2020:1-5.
26. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 2020;395(10224):565-74.
27. Li W, Moore MJ, Vasilieva N, Sui J, Wong SK, Berne MA, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature. 2003;426(6965):450-4.
28. Gallagher TM, Buchmeier MJ. Coronavirus spike proteins in viral entry and pathogenesis. Virology. 2001;279(2):371-4.
29. Heurich A, Hofmann-Winkler H, Gierer S, Liepold T, Jahn O, Pöhlmann S. TMPRSS2 and ADAM17 cleave ACE2 differentially and only proteolysis by TMPRSS2 augments entry driven by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein. J Virol. 2014;88(2):1293-307.
30. Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X, et al. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. Int J Oral Sci. 2020;12(1):1-5.
31. Zhao Y, Zhao Z, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Ma Y, Zuo W. Single-cell RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the putative receptor of Wuhan 2019-nCov. bioRxiv. 2020.
32. Batlle D, Wysocki J, Satchell K. Soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2: a potential approach for coronavirus infection therapy? CLIN SCI. 2020;134(5):543-5.
33. Bertram S, Heurich A, Lavender H, Gierer S, Danisch S, Perin P, et al. Influenza and SARS-coronavirus activating proteases TMPRSS2 and HAT are expressed at multiple sites in human respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. PLoS One. 2012;7(4).
34. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S. & Müller, MA (2020). SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell.
35. Kawase M, Shirato K, van der Hoek L, Taguchi F, Matsuyama S. Simultaneous treatment of human bronchial epithelial cells with serine and cysteine protease inhibitors prevents severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus entry. J Virol. 2012;86(12):6537-45.
36. Consortium G. The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) pilot analysis: multitissue gene regulation in humans. Science. 2015;348(6235):648-60.
37. Cao Y, Li L, Feng Z, Wan S, Huang P, Sun X, et al. Comparative genetic analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2) receptor ACE2 in different populations. Cell Discov. 2020;6(1):1-4.
38. Wang P, Fedoruk MN, Rupert JL. Keeping pace with ACE. Sports Med. 2008;38(12):1065-79.
39. Montgomery HE, Clarkson P, Dollery CM, Prasad K, Losi M-A, Hemingway H, et al. Association of angiotensin-converting enzyme gene I/D polymorphism with change in left ventricular mass in response to physical training. Circulation. 1997;96(3):741-7.
40. Shanmuganathan R, Kumaresan R, Giri P. Prevalence of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) gene insertion/deletion polymorphism in South Indian population with hypertension and chronic kidney disease. J Postgrad Med. 2015;61(4):230.
41. He Q, Fan C, Yu M, Wallar G, Zhang Z-F, Wang L, et al. Associations of ACE gene insertion/deletion polymorphism, ACE activity, and ACE mRNA expression with hypertension in a Chinese population. PLoS One. 2013;8(10).
42. Saavedra JM. Angiotensin Receptor Blockers and 2019-nCoV. Pharmacol Res. 2020:104832.
43. Tousoulis D, Koumallos N, Antoniades C, Antonopoulos AS, Bakogiannis C, Milliou A, et al. Genetic polymorphism on type 2 receptor of angiotensin II, modifies cardiovascular risk and systemic inflammation in hypertensive males. Am J Hypertens. 2010;23(3):237-42.
44. Karnik SS, Unal H, Kemp JR, Tirupula KC, Eguchi S, Vanderheyden PM, et al. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. XCIX. Angiotensin receptors: interpreters of pathophysiological angiotensinergic stimuli. Pharmacol Rev. 2015;67(4):754-819.
45. Scarpa N, Sghedoni D, Rosa M, per la Salute B. COVID-19, la malattia da nuovo coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2).
46. Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. Receptor recognition by the novel coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS coronavirus. J Virol. 2020;94(7).
47. Li XC, Zhang J, Zhuo JL. The vasoprotective axes of the renin-angiotensin system: Physiological relevance and therapeutic implications in cardiovascular, hypertensive and kidney diseases. Pharmacol Res. 2017;125:21-38.
48. Driggin E, Madhavan MV, Bikdeli B, Chuich T, Laracy J, Bondi-Zoccai G, et al. Cardiovascular Considerations for Patients, Health Care Workers, and Health Systems During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020.
49. Fedson DS. Treating the host response to emerging virus diseases: lessons learned from sepsis, pneumonia, influenza and Ebola. Ann Transl Med. 2016;4(21).
50. Qu R, Ling Y, Zhang Yh, Wei Ly, Chen X, Li X, et al. Platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio is associated with prognosis in patients with Corona Virus Disease-19. J Med Virol. 2020.
51. Zheng Y-Y, Ma Y-T, Zhang J-Y, Xie X. COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020:1-2.
52. Wong C, Lam C, Wu A, Ip W, Lee N, Chan I, et al. Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol. 2004;136(1):95-103.
53. Control CfD. Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). 2020.
54. Devaux CA, Rolain J-M, Colson P, Raoult D. New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020:105938.
55. Wondafrash DZ, Desalegn TZ, Yimer EM, Tsige AG, Adamu BA, Zewdie KA. Potential effect of hydroxychloroquine in diabetes mellitus: a systematic review on preclinical and clinical trial studies. J. diabetes Res. 2020,Feb 27.
56. Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, Erickson BR, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, et al. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J. 2005;2(1):69.
57. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269-71.
58. Kim K-A, Park J-Y, Lee J-S, Lim S. Cytochrome P450 2C8 and CYP3A4/5 are involved in chloroquine metabolism in human liver microsomes. Arch Pharm Res. 2003;26(8):631-7.
59. Somer M, Kallio J, Pesonen U, Pyykkö K, Huupponen R, Scheinin M. Influence of hydroxychloroquine on the bioavailability of oral metoprolol. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2000;49(6):549-54.
60. Bain LJ, McLachlan JB, LeBlanc GA. Structure-activity relationships for xenobiotic transport substrates and inhibitory ligands of P-glycoprotein. Environ. Health Perspect. 1997 Aug;105(8):812-8.
61. Xu C, Zhu L, Chan T, Lu X, Shen W, Madigan MC, et al. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are novel inhibitors of human organic anion transporting polypeptide 1A2. J Pharm Sci. 2016;105(2):884-90.
62. Lee JY, Vinayagamoorthy N, Han K, Kwok SK, Ju JH, Park KS, et al. Association of polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2D6 with blood hydroxychloroquine levels in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2016;68(1):184-90.
63. Champney WS, Miller M. Inhibition of 50S ribosomal subunit assembly in Haemophilus influenzae cells by azithromycin and erythromycin. Curr. Microbiol.. 2002 Jun 1;44(6):418-24.
64. Knuckley B, Luo Y, Thompson PR. Profiling Protein Arginine Deiminase 4 (PAD4): a novel screen to identify PAD4 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem. 2008;16(2):739-45.
65. Fohner AE, Sparreboom A, Altman RB, Klein TE. PharmGKB summary: Macrolide antibiotic pathway, pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenet Genomics. 2017;27(4):164.
66. He X-J, Zhao L-M, Qiu F, Sun Y-X, Li-Ling J. Influence of ABCB1 gene polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of azithromycin among healthy Chinese Han ethnic subjects. Pharmacol Rep. 2009;61(5):843-50.
67. Deshotels MR, Xia H, Sriramula S, Lazartigues E, Filipeanu CM. Angiotensin II mediates angiotensin converting enzyme type 2 internalization and degradation through an angiotensin ii type i receptor–dependent mechanism. Hypertension. 2014;64(6):1368-75.
68. Fang L, Karakiulakis G, Roth M. Are patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection? Lancet Respir Med. 2020.
69. Diaz JH. Hypothesis: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers may increase the risk of severe COVID-19. J Travel Med. 2020.
70. Gewirtz AM, Sokol DL, Ratajczak MZ. Nucleic acid therapeutics: state of the art and future prospects. Blood. 1998;92(3):712-36.
71. Kong X, Zhang W, Lockey RF, Auais A, Piedimonte G, Mohapatra SS. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in Fischer 344 rats is attenuated by short interfering RNA against the RSV-NS1 gene. Genet Vaccines Ther. 2007;5(1):4.
72. Fukushima A, Fukuda N, Lai Y, Ueno T, Moriyama M, Taguchi F, et al. Development of a chimeric DNA-RNA hammerhead ribozyme targeting SARS virus. Intervirology. 2009;52(2):92-9.
73. Neuman BW, Stein DA, Kroeker AD, Bestwick RK, Iversen PL, Moulton HM, et al. Inhibition and escape of SARS-CoV treated with antisense morpholino oligomers. The Nidoviruses: Springer; 2006. p. 567-71.
74. Shanmugaraj B, Siriwattananon K, Wangkanont K, Phoolcharoen W. Perspectives on monoclonal antibody therapy as potential therapeutic intervention for Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2020;38(1):10-8.
75. Kumar GV, Jeyanthi V, Ramakrishnan S. A short review on antibody therapy for COVID-19. New Microbes New Infect. 2020:100682.
2. Pouya F, Imani Saber Z, Kerachian MA. Molecular Aspects of Co-morbidities in COVID-19 Infection. Arch Bone Jt Surg. 2020;8(Suppl1):226-230.
3. Banerjee A, Baker ML, Kulcsar K, Misra V, Plowright R, Mossman K. Novel insights into immune systems of bats. Front Immunol. 2020;11:26.
4. Lau SK, Li KS, Tsang AK, Lam CS, Ahmed S, Chen H, et al. Genetic characterization of Betacoronavirus lineage C viruses in bats reveals marked sequence divergence in the spike protein of pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5 in Japanese pipistrelle: implications for the origin of the novel Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol. 2013;87(15):8638-50.
5. Yang Y, Lu Q, Liu M, Wang Y, Zhang A, Jalali N, et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in China. medrxiv. 2020.
6. Coutard B, Valle C, de Lamballerie X, Canard B, Seidah N, Decroly E. The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade. Antiviral Res. 2020;176:104742.
7. Yuan Y, Cao D, Zhang Y, Ma J, Qi J, Wang Q, et al. Cryo-EM structures of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV spike glycoproteins reveal the dynamic receptor binding domains. Nat Commun. 2017;8:15092.
8. Yamada Y, Liu DX. Proteolytic activation of the spike protein at a novel RRRR/S motif is implicated in furin-dependent entry, syncytium formation, and infectivity of coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus in cultured cells. J Virol. 2009;83(17):8744-58.
9. Tse, Victor and Hamilton, Alice and Friling, Tamar and Whittaker, Gary. A Novel Activation Mechanism of Avian Influenza Virus H9N2 by Furin. J Virol. 2013;1673-83
10. Cameron A, Appel J, Houghten RA, Lindberg I. Polyarginines are potent furin inhibitors. J Biol Chem. 2000;275(47):36741-9.
11. Moulard M, Decroly E. Maturation of HIV envelope glycoprotein precursors by cellular endoproteases. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2000;1469(3):121-32.
12. Taylor NA, Van De Ven WJ, Creemers JW. Curbing activation: proprotein convertases in homeostasis and pathology. Faseb j. 2003;17(10):1215-27.
13. Wu MJ, Wolska A, Roberts BS, Pearson EM, Gutgsell AR, Remaley AT, et al. Coexpression of novel furin-resistant LPL variants with lipase maturation factor 1 enhances LPL secretion and activity. J Lipid Res. 2018;59(12):2456-65.
14. Tikka A, Jauhiainen M. The role of ANGPTL3 in controlling lipoprotein metabolism. Endocrine. 2016;52(2):187-93.
15. Bassi DE, Mahloogi H, Lopez De Cicco R, Klein-Szanto A. Increased furin activity enhances the malignant phenotype of human head and neck cancer cells. Am J Pathol. 2003;162(2):439-47.
16. Sudevan S, Takiura M, Kubota Y, Higashitani N, Cooke M, Ellwood RA, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction causes Ca(2+) overload and ECM degradation-mediated muscle damage in C. elegans. Faseb j. 2019;33(8):9540-50.
17. Yakala GK, Cabrera-Fuentes H, Crespo-Avilan G, Rattanasopa C, Burlacu A, George B, et al. FURIN Inhibition Reduces Vascular Remodeling and Atherosclerotic Lesion Progression in Mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2019;39.
18. Fowler DM, Koulov AV, Alory-Jost C, Marks MS, Balch WE, Kelly JW. Functional amyloid formation within mammalian tissue. PLoS Biol. 2006;4(1):e6.
19. Gondzik V, Weber WM, Awayda MS. Coupling of epithelial Na+ and Cl- channels by direct and indirect activation by serine proteases. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2012;303(9):C936-46.
20. Boucher E, Mayer G, Londono I, Bendayan M. Expression and localization of MT1-MMP and furin in the glomerular wall of short- and long-term diabetic rats. Kidney Int. 2006;69(9):1570-7.
21. Ornatowski W, Poschet JF, Perkett E, Taylor-Cousar JL, Deretic V. Elevated furin levels in human cystic fibrosis cells result in hypersusceptibility to exotoxin A-induced cytotoxicity. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(11):3489-97.
22. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020.
23. Zheng X, Chung D, Takayama TK, Majerus EM, Sadler JE, Fujikawa K. Structure of von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease (ADAMTS13), a metalloprotease involved in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. J Biol Chem. 2001;276(44):41059-63.
24. Yang X, Yang W, McVey DG, Zhao G, Hu J, Poston RN, et al. FURIN Expression in Vascular Endothelial Cells Is Modulated by a Coronary Artery Disease–Associated Genetic Variant and Influences Monocyte Transendothelial Migration. J AM HEART ASSOC. 2020;9(4):e014333.
25. Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, Zhong N, Slutsky AS. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med. 2020:1-5.
26. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 2020;395(10224):565-74.
27. Li W, Moore MJ, Vasilieva N, Sui J, Wong SK, Berne MA, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature. 2003;426(6965):450-4.
28. Gallagher TM, Buchmeier MJ. Coronavirus spike proteins in viral entry and pathogenesis. Virology. 2001;279(2):371-4.
29. Heurich A, Hofmann-Winkler H, Gierer S, Liepold T, Jahn O, Pöhlmann S. TMPRSS2 and ADAM17 cleave ACE2 differentially and only proteolysis by TMPRSS2 augments entry driven by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein. J Virol. 2014;88(2):1293-307.
30. Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X, et al. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. Int J Oral Sci. 2020;12(1):1-5.
31. Zhao Y, Zhao Z, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Ma Y, Zuo W. Single-cell RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the putative receptor of Wuhan 2019-nCov. bioRxiv. 2020.
32. Batlle D, Wysocki J, Satchell K. Soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2: a potential approach for coronavirus infection therapy? CLIN SCI. 2020;134(5):543-5.
33. Bertram S, Heurich A, Lavender H, Gierer S, Danisch S, Perin P, et al. Influenza and SARS-coronavirus activating proteases TMPRSS2 and HAT are expressed at multiple sites in human respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. PLoS One. 2012;7(4).
34. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S. & Müller, MA (2020). SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell.
35. Kawase M, Shirato K, van der Hoek L, Taguchi F, Matsuyama S. Simultaneous treatment of human bronchial epithelial cells with serine and cysteine protease inhibitors prevents severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus entry. J Virol. 2012;86(12):6537-45.
36. Consortium G. The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) pilot analysis: multitissue gene regulation in humans. Science. 2015;348(6235):648-60.
37. Cao Y, Li L, Feng Z, Wan S, Huang P, Sun X, et al. Comparative genetic analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2) receptor ACE2 in different populations. Cell Discov. 2020;6(1):1-4.
38. Wang P, Fedoruk MN, Rupert JL. Keeping pace with ACE. Sports Med. 2008;38(12):1065-79.
39. Montgomery HE, Clarkson P, Dollery CM, Prasad K, Losi M-A, Hemingway H, et al. Association of angiotensin-converting enzyme gene I/D polymorphism with change in left ventricular mass in response to physical training. Circulation. 1997;96(3):741-7.
40. Shanmuganathan R, Kumaresan R, Giri P. Prevalence of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) gene insertion/deletion polymorphism in South Indian population with hypertension and chronic kidney disease. J Postgrad Med. 2015;61(4):230.
41. He Q, Fan C, Yu M, Wallar G, Zhang Z-F, Wang L, et al. Associations of ACE gene insertion/deletion polymorphism, ACE activity, and ACE mRNA expression with hypertension in a Chinese population. PLoS One. 2013;8(10).
42. Saavedra JM. Angiotensin Receptor Blockers and 2019-nCoV. Pharmacol Res. 2020:104832.
43. Tousoulis D, Koumallos N, Antoniades C, Antonopoulos AS, Bakogiannis C, Milliou A, et al. Genetic polymorphism on type 2 receptor of angiotensin II, modifies cardiovascular risk and systemic inflammation in hypertensive males. Am J Hypertens. 2010;23(3):237-42.
44. Karnik SS, Unal H, Kemp JR, Tirupula KC, Eguchi S, Vanderheyden PM, et al. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. XCIX. Angiotensin receptors: interpreters of pathophysiological angiotensinergic stimuli. Pharmacol Rev. 2015;67(4):754-819.
45. Scarpa N, Sghedoni D, Rosa M, per la Salute B. COVID-19, la malattia da nuovo coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2).
46. Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. Receptor recognition by the novel coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS coronavirus. J Virol. 2020;94(7).
47. Li XC, Zhang J, Zhuo JL. The vasoprotective axes of the renin-angiotensin system: Physiological relevance and therapeutic implications in cardiovascular, hypertensive and kidney diseases. Pharmacol Res. 2017;125:21-38.
48. Driggin E, Madhavan MV, Bikdeli B, Chuich T, Laracy J, Bondi-Zoccai G, et al. Cardiovascular Considerations for Patients, Health Care Workers, and Health Systems During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020.
49. Fedson DS. Treating the host response to emerging virus diseases: lessons learned from sepsis, pneumonia, influenza and Ebola. Ann Transl Med. 2016;4(21).
50. Qu R, Ling Y, Zhang Yh, Wei Ly, Chen X, Li X, et al. Platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio is associated with prognosis in patients with Corona Virus Disease-19. J Med Virol. 2020.
51. Zheng Y-Y, Ma Y-T, Zhang J-Y, Xie X. COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020:1-2.
52. Wong C, Lam C, Wu A, Ip W, Lee N, Chan I, et al. Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol. 2004;136(1):95-103.
53. Control CfD. Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). 2020.
54. Devaux CA, Rolain J-M, Colson P, Raoult D. New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020:105938.
55. Wondafrash DZ, Desalegn TZ, Yimer EM, Tsige AG, Adamu BA, Zewdie KA. Potential effect of hydroxychloroquine in diabetes mellitus: a systematic review on preclinical and clinical trial studies. J. diabetes Res. 2020,Feb 27.
56. Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, Erickson BR, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, et al. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J. 2005;2(1):69.
57. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269-71.
58. Kim K-A, Park J-Y, Lee J-S, Lim S. Cytochrome P450 2C8 and CYP3A4/5 are involved in chloroquine metabolism in human liver microsomes. Arch Pharm Res. 2003;26(8):631-7.
59. Somer M, Kallio J, Pesonen U, Pyykkö K, Huupponen R, Scheinin M. Influence of hydroxychloroquine on the bioavailability of oral metoprolol. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2000;49(6):549-54.
60. Bain LJ, McLachlan JB, LeBlanc GA. Structure-activity relationships for xenobiotic transport substrates and inhibitory ligands of P-glycoprotein. Environ. Health Perspect. 1997 Aug;105(8):812-8.
61. Xu C, Zhu L, Chan T, Lu X, Shen W, Madigan MC, et al. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are novel inhibitors of human organic anion transporting polypeptide 1A2. J Pharm Sci. 2016;105(2):884-90.
62. Lee JY, Vinayagamoorthy N, Han K, Kwok SK, Ju JH, Park KS, et al. Association of polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2D6 with blood hydroxychloroquine levels in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2016;68(1):184-90.
63. Champney WS, Miller M. Inhibition of 50S ribosomal subunit assembly in Haemophilus influenzae cells by azithromycin and erythromycin. Curr. Microbiol.. 2002 Jun 1;44(6):418-24.
64. Knuckley B, Luo Y, Thompson PR. Profiling Protein Arginine Deiminase 4 (PAD4): a novel screen to identify PAD4 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem. 2008;16(2):739-45.
65. Fohner AE, Sparreboom A, Altman RB, Klein TE. PharmGKB summary: Macrolide antibiotic pathway, pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenet Genomics. 2017;27(4):164.
66. He X-J, Zhao L-M, Qiu F, Sun Y-X, Li-Ling J. Influence of ABCB1 gene polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of azithromycin among healthy Chinese Han ethnic subjects. Pharmacol Rep. 2009;61(5):843-50.
67. Deshotels MR, Xia H, Sriramula S, Lazartigues E, Filipeanu CM. Angiotensin II mediates angiotensin converting enzyme type 2 internalization and degradation through an angiotensin ii type i receptor–dependent mechanism. Hypertension. 2014;64(6):1368-75.
68. Fang L, Karakiulakis G, Roth M. Are patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection? Lancet Respir Med. 2020.
69. Diaz JH. Hypothesis: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers may increase the risk of severe COVID-19. J Travel Med. 2020.
70. Gewirtz AM, Sokol DL, Ratajczak MZ. Nucleic acid therapeutics: state of the art and future prospects. Blood. 1998;92(3):712-36.
71. Kong X, Zhang W, Lockey RF, Auais A, Piedimonte G, Mohapatra SS. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in Fischer 344 rats is attenuated by short interfering RNA against the RSV-NS1 gene. Genet Vaccines Ther. 2007;5(1):4.
72. Fukushima A, Fukuda N, Lai Y, Ueno T, Moriyama M, Taguchi F, et al. Development of a chimeric DNA-RNA hammerhead ribozyme targeting SARS virus. Intervirology. 2009;52(2):92-9.
73. Neuman BW, Stein DA, Kroeker AD, Bestwick RK, Iversen PL, Moulton HM, et al. Inhibition and escape of SARS-CoV treated with antisense morpholino oligomers. The Nidoviruses: Springer; 2006. p. 567-71.
74. Shanmugaraj B, Siriwattananon K, Wangkanont K, Phoolcharoen W. Perspectives on monoclonal antibody therapy as potential therapeutic intervention for Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2020;38(1):10-8.
75. Kumar GV, Jeyanthi V, Ramakrishnan S. A short review on antibody therapy for COVID-19. New Microbes New Infect. 2020:100682.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 19 No 5 (2020) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijaai.v19i5.4461 | |
| PMID | 33463113 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 Coronavirus FURIN protein Personalized medicine Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Imani-Saber Z, Vaseghi H, Mahdian M, Safari F, Ghadami M. Variable Clinical Manifestations of COVID-19: Viral and Human Genomes Talk. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2020;19(5):456-470.
